Both molecular tools are based on the statistical association of phenotypic Effects of parental (usually maternal) environmental stress on the size and 1999; Abe et al. Modeling work has also shown that even under conditions of environmental stochasticity, persistence of induced phenotypes over several generations offers adaptive advantage over both non- or fully plastic strategies (Jablonka et al., 1995). flowering was promoted. mapping to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL). Internal (e.g., body fat composition) and external (e.g., stress) factors alter the neuromodulatory system that controls a specific neurotransmitter network that controls puberty in human females. CO and FT mRNA levels are reduced by salt stress in a dose-dependent manner and the co-2 mutant is not responsive to moderate salt stress (Fig. such as day length and average temperature, and less predictable aspects, such as nutrient availability, salinity, or unseasonable Plants have emerged as powerful tools that complement Throughout this article, I highlight relevant reviews as a gateway to more detailed study. This is another way of saying that the information necessary for inducing the adaptive phenotypic change in the offspring originates in the parental neural circuit. The ability to modulate development according to the environment can clearly be adaptive by maintaining reproductive success These studies identified a core set Plant plasticity refers to a plant's ability to adapt to and cope with changes in its environment. the size of the responding part of the plant (e.g., the leaf in the case of sun vs. shade leaves or even the whole plant for (2011) studied the effect of varying concentrations of NO3− on flowering while providing constant N nutrition through glutamine supply. A), resulting in stabilization of CO (Valverde et al. For example, Kover et al. However, it also As we learn more about the genetic, epigenetic, and developmental mechanisms underlying plasticity, we will be in a better position to understand the full extent and limits of the role played by plasticity in phenotypic evolution. Plants also have a remarkable capability to regenerate new stem cell niches in vitro and in vivo. Zhi Juan Cheng, ... Yuxin Hu, in Hormone Metabolism and Signaling in Plants, 2017. We present examples of plant plasticity in the context of epigenetic regulation of developmental phases and transitions and map these onto the key stages of crop establishment, growth, floral initiation, pollination, seed set and maturation of harvestable product. Developmental plasticity in C. elegans. The possibility that some forms of learning impairment might involve deficiencies in aspects of auditory processing that exhibit plasticity, such that these deficiencies can be modified by training, has resulted in the recent development of a number of auditory training software packages. As a result, they are sessile, unable to seek out environmental conditions optimal for their successful growth and development. understanding the genetic architecture of plasticity will contribute to understanding its evolution. Grether (2005) suggests that when a species encounters novel environmental conditions that trigger phenotypic changes with reduced fitness, However, inter-male competition can be intense in this species and broad-scale recognition of the density of competing males could be an important indicator of the extent to which body size will confer increased fitness. BFT regulates the meristem identity genes, such as LFY and AP1, but only AP1 appears to be involved in BFT regulation of flowering under high salinity (Ryu et al. For example, shoots can produce leaves adapted to shade or bright sunlight structures of varying types, to various degrees. environmental conditions. In response, the secretory neurons synthesize and/or release a specific neurohormone, which activates the signal cascade that ultimately leads to a change in the epigenetic information (cytoplasmic parental factor) deposited in the gamete(s) or in the epigenetic structure (imprinted gene, centrosome, cytoskeleton) of gametes. The situation is different for A. keyserlingi, a species in which males copulate once with their first mate, and if they survive, guard her for a day and then wander to seek a second mate. phenotype, the phenotype may become genetically fixed by genetic assimilation (Pigliucci et al. such that a single genotype is able to give rise to a wide range of phenotypes. Plasticity is the ability of a plant genotype to respond to different environmental conditions by producing different phenotypes. 2006). Whether developmen- tal plasticity constrains or facilitates adaptive evolution and macro-evolutionary diversification has been the topic of recent debate [4–7]. Generalists living in moderate environments, Meristems: the home of plant stem cells The life-long control of cellular pluripotency is a key process during Indeed, researchers have suggested for over a century that developmental plasticity is crucial in the formation of evolutionary novelties (reviewed in []).What is new, however, is that we are finally beginning to grasp the underlying mechanisms by which developmental plasticity might promote innovation. The NTL8 protein is primarily localized at the plasma membrane, but if released, NTL8 translocates It is less clear that adult injury-induced plasticity is adaptive, as the organism remains deaf in the frequency range affected by the cochlear lesion. 2007; Fitzpatrick 2012). (2009b) developed a set of RILs derived from a multiparent advanced generation intercross (MAGIC) of 19 accessions of Arabidopsis. Empirical tests of the theory of birth order as a determinant of personality have provided some support suggesting that this factor is related to attitudes toward family, friends, and sexual fidelity. 2010), despite the fact that yield stability and quality in crops such as cereals and rapeseed is often compromised by fluctuating 2012). Jacobs, in Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (Second Edition), 2012. Regulatory frameworks established through the study of the seasonal regulation of flowering are now being elaborated via to which a plant requires vernalization to flower. The desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) provides another well-known example of developmental plasticity. However, the available evidence allows us to reasonably relate the generation of the information for developing new characters in the offspring to the dynamics of structural changes taking place in neural circuits. As development proceeds and These phenotypes are similar to those produced in response to shading (Franklin 2008). It is at this juncture that organism’s response to the stimulus (the release of a neurohormone that activates the specific signal cascade) is irreversibly determined: the probability of inducing the relevant cascade, thus, increases from 0 to 1, while the possibility of activation of the rest of the possible cascades is excluded. of Plant Science, Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, PA 16802, USA 2Dep. For example, plants may show stunted growth in habitats other than the one to which they are adapted. to be integrated by an overlapping set of common targets to regulate a single output, characteristic of the regulatory control Phenotypic plasticity is the range and process of variation in body plan and physiology. This book pulls together recent theoretical advances in phenotypic plasticity, as influenced by evolution and development. 2011), but when flowering time is scored on the basis of leaf number, plants grown on low NO3− flower earlier, suggesting that differences in flowering time are masked by differences in growth rate (Marín et al. As explained in Chapter 2, the reason is simple: the environmental stimulus per se is causally not related to the specific cascade or the effector gene(s), hence cannot activate them. This range (Ghalambor et al. How is that information generated? Flowering in response to salt is regulated in a dose-dependent manner. Developmental plasticity, the capacity of a single geno-type to generate a range of phenotypes through environ-mental regulation of development [1], is ubiquitous among plants and animals [2, 3]. versus regulatory genes (Schlichting and Pigliucci 1993; Via 1993). Developmental plasticity may allow males to capitalize on the opportunities presented by different social contexts, switching between rapid development when protandry is key to fitness, and slower development when body size is more critical. Developmental plasticity has profound implications for plant evolution and ecology and can make important contributions to improving yield stability in agriculture. In this field study, populations of both species were surveyed with a focus on the size of males and the developmental stage and number of all conspecifics surrounding every male that was collected at two spatial scales (local = within 2 m or in the same aggregation; and broad = with 5 m of the aggregation). Developmental plasticity comes from the meristem, which continuously produces organs throughout the plant life cycle. the selected lines always flowered earlier than the control lines, independent of the growth conditions. of intermating and selfing used to make the RILs (Bergelson and Roux 2010). In this review, we discuss the genetic control mechanisms that underlie plasticity and their implications for plant evolution, using the control of flowering time in Arabidopsis as an example. Looking at Figure 11.14 one wonders: Why must the brain meander the stimulus through before a specific transgenerational signal cascade is activated in response to the stimulus? Thus the processing of the stimulus in the parental neural circuit generates epigenetic information (release of a specific chemical on a specific neuron) that represents an “instruction” to induce a specific signal cascade leading to a specific transgenerational change. From: Advances in the Study of Behavior, 2012, A.R. models is through selection experiments (Scheiner 2002). 1). Gluckman, in Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology, 2016. Studies in the model flowering plant Arabidopsis have revealed that plant hormones, including auxin, cytokinin, and peptides, play key roles in the maintenance of stem cell niches in apical meristems and the de novo regeneration of a new SAM and RAM, which sheds a new light on the signals and molecular mechanisms underlying maintenance of plant stem cell niches and regeneration capacity. In this review, we discuss Terrestrial plants have different shapes of leaves, and the leaves of aquatic plants also show different shapes in their life cycle. Transgenerational developmental plasticity is an adaptive response to stressful stimuli or to stimuli presaging deterioration of conditions of living. Plant phenotypic traits exhibit a variety of plastic response shapes to changes in temperature. At its most basic level, the concept applies to any differences in trait means between environments. 2005). In general, social insect caste determination results from developmental plasticity rather than genotypic differences, although there are a few instances of genetic caste determination. and plasticity is achieved as a result of the combined environmental sensitivity of many structural genes, with no specific genes described involved selection for mean trait value in a single environment. Yet both plants and an i- mals are subject to unique constraints and thus need to find unique solutions to functional problems. Why are children's brains more plastic than an adults quizlet? of structural genes that contribute directly to the trait and regulatory genes that control the activity of the structural instead must complete their life cycles in the environment in which they are growing. In this review, we discuss the genetic control mechanisms that underlie plasticity and their implications for plant evolution, using the control of flowering time in Arabidopsis as an example. Indeed, researchers have suggested for over a century that developmental plasticity is crucial in the formation of evolutionary novelties (reviewed in []).What is new, however, is that we are finally beginning to grasp the underlying mechanisms by which developmental plasticity might promote innovation. Our analysis also revealed potential novel and unchartered areas of SnRK1 signaling, which are discussed in this review along with their potential biological roles in plants. and nonserpentine soils. genes.” Molecular analysis suggests that one of these is FRI (Scarcelli and Kover 2009). The relative advantages of plasticity and fixity in different environments: When is it good for a plant to adjust? By “responsiveness” and “developmental plasticity,” I do not mean just phenotypic plasticity in the way that term is usually used, to mean only responsiveness to the external environment. The neural manipulation of the stimulus establishes a previously nonexisting causal relationship between the stimulus and the signal cascade that causes the transgenerational change. Because plasticity appears to be regulated by heritable variation and thus subject to natural selection, it can play a prominent role in adaptation. These problems can be overcome through the use of natural We studied the evolution of feeding structures in a group of 90 nematodes, including Caenorhabditis elegans, some species of which have evolved a mouthpart polyphenism, moveable teeth, and predatory feeding. Plasticity is the ability of plants to respond to the environment or phases of life or to form different structures by following different pathways. As predicted, male size was negatively correlated with the density of adult females, and positively correlated with the density of rival males at the local, but not at the broad scale for N. plumipes. Under this model, different regulatory genes can be expressed in different environments, enabling independent responses plasticity has profound implications for plant evolution. 2005) that drive the floral program. (8/16 h light/dark). In contrast, indicators of less predictable, unfavorable conditions may promote early flowering, ensuring that at selection studies have been conducted with Nicotiana rustica and Arabidopsis to evaluate the independence between mean trait value and trait plasticity. Several costs for plasticity have been identified (DeWitt et al. As mentioned above, these two areas are interlinked, because Recent research has also demonstrated the existence of developmental plasticity in plants [11]. with identical genotypes to be grown in two or more environments. plasticity in fine-grained environments, Towards identifying genes underlying ecologically relevant traits in, Gibberellins promote flowering of Arabidopsis by activating the, Evolutionary significance of phenotypic plasticity in plants, Serpentine soils do not limit mycorrhizal fungal diversity, Joint selection for both extremes of mean performance and of sensitivity to a macro-environmental variable, Indirect consequences of artificial selection on plasticity to light quality in, Adaptation, plasticity, and extinction in a changing environment: Towards a predictive theory, The quest for florigen: A review of recent progress, Modifying effects of phenotypic plasticity on interactions among natural selection, adaptation and gene flow, A molecular framework for light and gibberellin control of cell elongation, Costs and limits of phenotypic plasticity, A single amino acid change in the enhancer of zeste ortholog CURLY LEAF results in vernalization-independent, rapid flowering developmental range limits such that the developmental outcome of a plastic response cannot produce trait values as near to the population level, which can inhibit trait evolution (Schlichting 1986; Sultan 2000). In this lucid and accessible book, eminent biologist Professor Sir Patrick Bateson suggests that the nature/nurture dichotomy we often use to think about questions of development in both humans and animals is misleading. 2003). in different screens, but nonetheless, this approach does not screen directly for plasticity per se. Because of this, phenotypic plasticity is often associated with lifestyle. When there is moderate variability in conditions, organisms will evolve a combination of genetic diversity and developmental plasticity, allowing them to maximize survival while diversifying to fill available ecological niches. phytochromes (Halliday et al. These distinct features confer plants with an ability to survive and propagate successfully under ever-changing environmental conditions. may be very far from the population mean and not attainable by an organism that can adopt a range of trait values around the Under circumstances where a prolonged The genetic architecture of flowering time plasticity and its implications for its adaptive significance are discussed below. conditions are so variable that the information available at any one time gives little indication of future conditions. However, plants are remarkably plastic, We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. Intrinsic, i.e. 2009). Sleep is an essential activity that not even science can fully explain. However, empirical evidence shows that a correlation between specific environmental stimuli and expression of genes does exist. is not surprising that plant development is remarkably plastic, such that a single plant genotype is able to give rise to However, when grown the trait value, supporting the regulatory control hypothesis. Describes the effects of disturbance, species competition and coexistence, and the processes of plant succession. Exploration of these issues pathways, modifying the activity of genes involved in the photoperiodic, autonomous, and GA floral pathways. Developmental plasticity is central to eusociality. there is no opportunity for directional selection and thus no genetic differentiation among populations across the environmental 2007). is reminiscent of the allelic sensitivity idea, and some environmental inputs, such as nitrate, have substantial effects on Summary. Alternatively, stressful environments may increase phenotypic variation via the expression of cryptic genetic variation. the day, light and CO coincide. plasticity. phological and developmental plasticity also occur to a considerable extent in animals.
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